circa 400–300 BCE
1.
Ancient Civilisations: Egypt: Early medical texts,
such as the Edwin Smith Papyrus (c. 1600 BCE), contained some of the earliest
recorded descriptions of the human brain, head trauma, and central nervous
system functions.
2.
Greece: Shifted away from supernatural
explanations to naturalistic interpretations of human behaviour, mood, and
mental illness.
3.
China: Confucius and early texts developed
psychological ideas around human development, social harmony, and emotional
balance, attributing mental health to the flow and balance of internal energies
(yin and yang).
4.
India: Ancient Vedic texts, Vedanta philosophy,
and the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali explored self-awareness, consciousness,
memory, and mental discipline for psychological balance.
2. Etymology of "Psychology Origin: The term was coined
in the 16th century (often attributed to Marko Marulić and later popularised by
Rudolf Göckel)
. Greek Roots: Derived from $\psi \upsilon \chi \acute{\eta} $
(psyche), meaning "soul," "mind," or "breath of
life," and $\lambda o \gamma \acute{\iota} \alpha$ (logia), meaning
"study of" or "discourse."
3. Key Greek Philosophers & Medical Pioneers: Thinker Key
Psychological Contributions Socrates (c. 470–399 BCE) Introduced the Socratic
method of introspective questioning and dialectic inquiry, laying foundations
for self-examination and cognitive reflection. Hippocrates (c. 460–370 BCE): Known as the "Father of Medicine," he asserted that mental disorders
stemmed from natural physical causes (humoral imbalances in the body) rather
than demonic possession. Plato (c. 428–348 BCE) proposed a tripartite model of
the soul (reason, spirit, appetite) and argued for dualism—that the mind/soul
is distinct from the physical body. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) wrote De Anima (On
the Soul), often considered the first major treatise on psychology. He
emphasised empiricism, memory associations, sensory perception, and the
connection between mind and body.
Key Contributions: Shifted explanations of mental states away
from supernatural causes toward empirical observation. Hippocrates positioned
the brain as the centre of intellect, while Aristotle authored De Anima
("On the Mind").
Key Points of Tension1. Free Will and Human Agency vs.
Determinism
B.F. Skinner: Argued that human free will is an illusion.
Behaviour is strictly determined by a person's environmental history and
biological factors. In his famous book Beyond Freedom and Dignity (1971),
Skinner claimed that people do not choose their actions; rather, their
environment selects behaviours through reinforcement and punishment.
Carl Rogers: Believed
that humans possess agency, subjective choice, and self-determination. While
acknowledging that environmental conditions influence us, Rogers maintained
that individuals retain the capacity to choose their own direction, make
conscious decisions, and strive toward self-actualisation.
2. The Internal Experience vs. Observable Behaviour.
Skinner: Focused
exclusively on observable, measurable behaviour (operant conditioning). He
viewed the internal mind, feelings, and conscious thoughts as a "black
box"—covert events that are products of reinforcement rather than the root
causes of behaviour.
Carl Rogers: Placed subjective internal experience
(phenomenology) at the absolute centre of psychology. How a person perceives
their world, feels about themselves, and experiences their reality is what
drives behaviour. 3. View of Human Nature
B.F. Skinner: View of human nature was neutral and malleable.
Humans are born as adaptable organisms whose personalities and habits are
sculpted entirely by their environment (operant conditioning).
Carl Rogers: View of
human nature was inherently positive and growth-oriented. He believed humans
have an innate, directional drive toward self-actualisation—much like a plant
naturally grows toward light if given proper water and soil.4. The Goal of
Psychology and Control. Skinner: The goal of psychology was prediction and control.
By designing environments with clear reinforcement contingencies, society could
systematically shape desirable behaviour, reduce crime, and foster social
harmony (as depicted in his utopian novel Walden Two).
Carl Rogers: Heavily opposed the idea of external control,
viewing it as potentially manipulative or authoritarian. For Rogers, the goal
of psychology was empowerment and personal liberation—creating conditions where
individuals can trust their own internal compass and grow freely. Summary
Comparison Concept B.F. Skinner (Radical Behaviorism)Carl Rogers (Humanistic
Psychology)Core View of Humans Organisms shaped entirely by environmental consequences
Self-directing individuals with innate potential for growth Locus of Control
External: Environment controls behavior Internal: The individual makes
conscious choices Primary Method Experimental research, behavior analysis,
operant chambers Person-centered therapy, qualitative clinical reflection Core Mechanism
Reinforcement and Punishment Unconditional Positive Regard and Empathy Ultimate
Goal Design environments to predict and shape behavior Facilitate
self-actualization and personal freedom The Historic Rogers-Skinner Debates In
1956, Rogers and Skinner held a series of public debates organized by the
American Psychological Association (APA). Skinner argued that society inevitably
controls human behaviour, so psychology’s task is to ensure that control is used
wisely through scientific design. Rogers countered that a society based purely
on behavioral control risks stripping away what makes us human: personal
responsibility, moral choice, and subjective meaning.
Despite their big
theoretical differences, both figures fundamentally reshaped modern
psychology—Skinner by revolutionising learning theory and behavioural
interventions, and Rogers by transforming the relationship between therapist
and client across modern psychotherapy.
Sensory Psychophysics
1854
Key Figure: Gustav Fechner.
Key Contributions: Conducted early experimental studies on
sensory experiences in Leipzig, Germany, bridging physics and mental
perception.
Formal Birth of Experimental Psychology
1879
Key Figure: Wilhelm Wundt.
Key Contributions: Established the first dedicated
experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, officially
establishing psychology as an independent science.
American Psychological Science
1881
Key Figure: G. Stanley Hall.
Key Contributions: Founded the first psychology laboratory in
the United States at Johns Hopkins University.
Psychoanalysis
1900
Key Figure: Sigmund Freud.
Key Contributions: Published The Interpretation of Dreams,
introducing psychoanalysis and focusing on the role of the unconscious mind.
Behaviourism (1910s–1950s): John B. Watson and later B.F.
Skinner dismissed both conscious introspection and unconscious drives as
unscientific because they could not be directly observed. Behaviourism redefined
psychology as the objective science of observable behaviour conditioned by
environmental stimuli. Behaviorism
1913
Key Figure: John B. Watson.
Key Contributions: Published "Psychology as the
Behaviourist Views It", driving a paradigm shift toward observable,
measurable behaviour rather than internal mental states.
Ivon Pviov, Russian Psychologist, 1849 – 1936
Ivan Pavlov’s discovery of the conditioned reflex radically
transformed our understanding of learning, moving psychology toward an
objective, experimental science.
While studying the physiology of digestion—work for which he
won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1904—Pavlov noticed that his
laboratory dogs began salivating before food was actually placed in their
mouths. They reacted to cues associated with feeding, such as the sound of
footsteps or a metronome/bell.
Core Mechanics of Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning works by pairing an unconditioned
stimulus with a neutral stimulus until a learned response is established:
1. Before Conditioning:
Unconditioned
Stimulus (Food) ---> Unconditioned Response (Salivation)
Neutral Stimulus (Bell) ---> No Salivation
2. During Conditioning:
Neutral Stimulus
(Bell) + Unconditioned Stimulus (Food) ---> Salivation
3. After Conditioning:
Conditioned Stimulus
(Bell) ---> Conditioned Response (Salivation)
Broader Scientific Impact
Foundation of Behaviourism: By demonstrating that psychological
phenomena could be measured and quantified physically, Pavlov inspired John B.
Watson to reject introspection and establish Behaviourism in 1913.
Operant Conditioning Precursor: Pavlov's work paved the way
for B.F. Skinner to explore how behaviour is shaped by consequences (rewards and
punishments) rather than just antecedent triggers.
Modern Applications: Principles of classical conditioning are
widely used today in clinical psychology (such as systematic desensitisation
for phobias and exposure therapy for PTSD), addiction treatment, marketing, and
animal training.
Biological Psychology & Neuroscience
1970s
Shift: Integrated biological research with psychological
inquiry.
Focus: Investigated how brain structures, genetics, and
evolutionary adaptation (traits evolved via natural selection to enhance
survival and reproduction) influence human behaviour.
Carl Rogers 1902 – 1987 and Abraham Maslow 1808 – 1870
1.
Extinction & Inhibitory Learning In Pavlov’s
terms, extinction occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly
without the unconditioned stimulus. The learned connection gradually weakens
until the conditioned response fades. In anxiety treatment: The Mechanism: An
individual is exposed to the feared object or situation (the conditioned
stimulus) in a safe environment without any actual harm occurring (the missing
unconditioned stimulus).
2.
The Psychological Result: The brain doesn't
actually "erase" the old fear memory. Instead, it forms a new,
stronger association: "This trigger is safe." This process is called
inhibitory learning, where the new memory overrides the fear response.
2.
The treatment follows a clear step-by-step process:
Relaxation Training: The client learns deep breathing, progressive muscle
relaxation, or grounding techniques to voluntarily lower their central nervous
system's arousal.
3.
Building the Fear Hierarchy: The client and
therapist create a ranked list of feared scenarios related to the phobia,
ordered from least to most intimidating (rated 1 to 100 on a distress scale).
4.
Graduated Pairing: The client works through the
list item by item—either in imagination or in real life (in vivo)—using
relaxation techniques to remain calm at each tier. They do not move to the next
level until the current level produces zero anxiety. Example: Fear of Flying
Hierarchy Level Trigger / Scenario Method Used Low Distress (20) Looking at
photos of aeroplanes Paired with deep diaphragmatic breathing until comfortable.
5.
Moderate Distress (50) Driving to the airport and
sitting in the departure lounge. Practising relaxation techniques on site until
heart rate stabilises.
6.
High Distress (80) Boarding a stationary aircraft
or virtual reality flight simulator. Repeated exposure while maintaining
physical calm.
7.
Peak Distress (100) Taking an actual short
commercial flight. Maintaining controlled breathing throughout takeoff and landing.
Modern Variations: Exposure and Response Prevention (ERP). For conditions like
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) and severe PTSD, therapists adapt these
classical conditioning principles into Exposure and Response Prevention (ERP)
or In Vivo Flooding: Exposure: Facing the obsession or trauma trigger head-on.
Response Prevention: Refraining from the safety behaviour or compulsive ritual
that usually neutralises the anxiety (e.g., refraining from washing hands after
touching a door handle).
8.
By preventing the ritual, the brain learns through
classical extinction that the spike in anxiety will naturally peak and subside
on its own without needing the ritual to stay safe.
Carl Rogers: Person-Centered Theory & Psychotherapy
Rogers rejected the idea that clients were passive patients
controlled by subconscious conflicts (Freud) or conditioned reactions
(Pavlov/Skinner). Instead, he viewed individuals as inherently self-directing
and capable of personal growth.
The Self-Actualizing Tendency: Rogers proposed a single
foundational motive for human behaviour: an innate drive toward growth,
fulfilment, and actualising one's potential.
Core Conditions of Therapy: For growth to occur, Rogers argued
that individuals need an environment providing three essential elements:
Unconditional Positive Regard: Warm acceptance without
judgment or preconditions.
Empathy: Deep, accurate understanding of the client's internal
experience.
Congruence (Genuineness): Authenticity from the therapist,
matching their internal feelings with their external presentation.
Abraham Maslow: Motivation, Needs, & Positive Psychology
Maslow broadened humanistic psychology by studying
exceptionally healthy, creative, and fulfilled individuals—such as Albert
Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Frederick Douglass—to understand what human
nature looks like at its best.
Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow structured human motivation as a
pyramid, proposing that basic physiological and safety needs must be largely
satisfied before higher-growth needs emerge:
Deficiency Needs (D-needs): Physiological, Safety,
Belongingness/Love, and Esteem.
Growth Needs (B-needs): Self-Actualization and
Self-Transcendence.
Focus on Human Virtues: Troubled by the rise of
authoritarianism and the trauma of World War II, Maslow sought to prove that
human beings are capable of altruism, moral nobility, and peak
experiences—laying groundwork that directly inspired modern Positive
Psychology.
Modern Era
Present
Approach: Integrates multiple perspectives—including
cognitive, behavioural, humanistic, evolutionary, and neuroscientific
frameworks—supported by modern technology.
Competing Paradigms in Psychology
Throughout its history, psychology evolved through major
theoretical paradigms that clashed over what the discipline should study and
how it should study it:
Structuralism & Functionalism (Late 19th Century): Wilhelm
Wundt and Edward Titchener sought to map the "structure" of the
conscious mind using introspection. In response, William James proposed
Functionalism, arguing that psychology should study the purpose or function of
consciousness and behaviour in helping organisms adapt to their environment.
Psychoanalysis (1900s): Spearheaded by Sigmund Freud,
psychoanalysis rejected the focus on conscious experience, asserting that human
behaviour is primarily driven by unconscious desires, repressed memories, and
internal conflicts.
Cognitive Revolution
1950s
Shift: Moved away from strict behaviourism.
In modern clinical psychology, exposure therapies directly
target the learned associations created through classical conditioning. When a
person develops a phobia or anxiety disorder, a neutral trigger (like an
elevator, a public stage, or a specific animal) has become paired with an
intense fear response. To break this loop, clinicians use two primary
mechanisms: extinction and systematic desensitisation.
1. Extinction & Inhibitory Learning In Pavlov’s terms,
extinction occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without
the unconditioned stimulus.
The learned connection
gradually weakens until the conditioned response fades. In anxiety treatment:
The Mechanism: An individual is exposed to the feared object or situation (the
conditioned stimulus) in a safe environment without any actual harm occurring
(the missing unconditioned stimulus).
The Psychological Result: The brain doesn't actually
"erase" the old fear memory. Instead, it forms a new, stronger
association: "This trigger is safe." This process is called
inhibitory learning, where the new memory overrides the fear response.
2. Systematic Desensitisation: Developed by Joseph Wolpe in the
1950s, systematic desensitization relies on counterconditioning—pairing the
feared trigger with a response that is physically incompatible with anxiety,
such as deep muscle relaxation or controlled breathing.
The treatment follows a clear step-by-step process: Relaxation
Training: The client learns deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, or
grounding techniques to voluntarily lower their central nervous system's
arousal.
Building the Fear Hierarchy: The client and therapist create a
ranked list of feared scenarios related to the phobia, ordered from least to
most intimidating (rated 1 to 100 on a distress scale).
Graduated Pairing: The client works through the list item by
item—either in imagination or in real life (in vivo)—using relaxation
techniques to remain calm at each tier. They do not move to the next level
until the current level produces zero anxiety.
Example: Fear of Flying Hierarchy Level Trigger / Scenario Method Used Low Distress (20): Looking at photos of aeroplanes.
Paired with deep
diaphragmatic breathing until comfortable.
Moderate Distress (50): Driving to the airport and sitting in the departure lounge.
Practising relaxation techniques on site until heart rate
stabilises.
High Distress (80): Boarding a stationary aircraft or virtual
reality flight simulator. Repeated exposure while maintaining physical calm.
Peak Distress (100): Taking an actual short commercial flight. Maintaining controlled breathing
throughout takeoff and landing. Modern Variations: Exposure and Response
Prevention (ERP). For conditions like Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) and
severe PTSD, therapists adapt these classical conditioning principles into
Exposure and Response Prevention (ERP) or In Vivo Flooding: Exposure: Facing
the obsession or trauma trigger head-on. Response Prevention: Refraining from
the safety behaviour or compulsive ritual that usually neutralises the anxiety
(e.g., refraining from washing hands after touching a door handle).
By preventing the ritual, the brain learns through classical
extinction that the spike in anxiety will naturally peak and subside on its own
without needing the ritual to stay safe.
Focus: Returned to studying internal mental processes, memory,
perception, and problem-solving.
Cognitive Psychology (1950s–Present): The "cognitive
revolution" pushed back against behaviourism's view of the mind as a black
box. Influenced by computer science and information theory, cognitive
psychologists returned to studying internal mental processes—such as memory,
attention, problem-solving, and decision-making.
Humanistic Psychology (1950s–1960s): Developed by Carl Rogers
and Abraham Maslow as a "third force" against psychoanalysis and
behaviourism, humanism focused on human potential, free will,
self-actualisation, and personal growth.
Evolutionary Adaptation in Human Psychology
Evolutionary adaptation refers to psychological mechanisms and
behavioural traits that evolved through natural selection because they solved
specific recurrent problems faced by our ancestors, ultimately increasing
survival and reproductive success.
Key Principles
Ancestral Environment Focus: Traits were selected based on the
pressures of the Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness (EEA)—the ancestral
conditions under which early humans lived—rather than modern society.
Domain-Specific Modules: Many evolutionary psychologists
suggest the human mind evolved specialised "modules" or cognitive
shortcuts (e.g., threat detection, language acquisition, social exchange)
rather than a purely general-purpose intelligence.
Examples of Adaptive Psychological Traits
Fear and Threat Response: A heightened, automatic fear of
snakes, spiders, heights, or sudden loud noises conferred a clear survival
advantage over non-fearful individuals, preserving life before conscious
reasoning occurred.
Social Cooperation and Reciprocal Altruism: Humans evolved
emotional mechanisms like empathy, trust, guilt, and moral indignation to form
stable social groups, share resources, and punish "cheaters,"
significantly raising group survival rates.
Sweet and Fatty Food Preferences: In ancestral environments
where calories were scarce and unpredictable, a strong drive to seek out
high-calorie, nutrient-dense foods prevented starvation.
In-Group vs. Out-Group Bias: Early humans survived by bonding
tightly with kin and immediate band members, developing quick cognitive
categorisations to distinguish allies from potential threats.
Behaviourism vs. Cognitive Psychology: While Behaviourism
dominated the first half of the 20th century, the Cognitive Revolution in the
1950s shifted the focus back to internal mental states.
Attribute Behaviourism Cognitive Psychology Core View of the Mind
Viewed as a "black box"—internal mental states are unobservable,
subjective, and scientifically irrelevant. Viewed as an information processor
(akin to a computer) that actively encodes, stores, and retrieves data. Primary
Focus: Observable behaviour and environmental stimuli ($S \right arrow R$).
Internal processes: attention, memory, perception, language, and
problem-solving ($S \right arrow O \right arrow R$).
Methodology: Strict
laboratory experimentation, animal modelling (e.g., rats, pigeons),
classical/operant conditioning. Human behavioural experiments, reaction-time
measurements, neuroimaging (fMRI, EEG), cognitive modelling.
Key Assumptions: Behaviour is primarily learned through environmental interaction and conditioning.
Behaviour is guided by
internal mental representations, schema, and cognitive strategies. Key Figures: John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov. Jean Piaget, Ulric Neisser, Noam
Chomsky, George Miller. Evolutionary Mismatches in Modern Society: An
evolutionary mismatch (or evolutionary trap) occurs when an evolved trait that
was advantageous in an ancestral environment becomes neutral or harmful in a
rapidly changing modern environment. Human biology and psychology evolved over
hundreds of thousands of years in hunter-gatherer settings, whereas modern
civilisation developed in a fraction of that time
. Key Examples of Psychological Mismatches: Dietary Preferences
vs. Caloric Abundance. Ancestral Context: High-calorie foods (sugar, fat) were
rare and essential for surviving famines. Humans evolved strong neurological
reward drives to consume them whenever available.
Modern Mismatch:
Hyper-processed, calorie-dense foods are cheaply available 24/7, leading to
widespread obesity, diabetes, and metabolic health issues.
Social Connectivity vs. Social Media & Digital Communication
Ancestral Context: Humans lived in small, tight-knit bands (roughly 50–150
individuals) where reputation, social comparison, and group approval directly
dictated survival.
Modern Mismatch: Algorithmic platforms expose individuals to
global comparison pools and constant feedback metrics (likes, shares),
triggering anxiety, loneliness, and altered self-image.
Stress Response vs. Chronic Modern Stressors: Ancestral
Context: The "fight-or-flight" physiological response evolved to
handle immediate, acute physical threats (e.g., escaping a predator).
Modern Mismatch: Modern stressors (mortgages, traffic, job
deadlines) are chronic rather than acute. The body repeatedly triggers stress
hormones like cortisol, contributing to chronic fatigue, cardiovascular strain,
and anxiety disorders.
Sedentary Environments vs. Movement Drives Ancestral Context:
Daily survival required miles of walking, foraging, tracking, and physical
labour. Energy conservation was favoured during downtime.
Modern Mismatch: Modern life requires almost no physical
exertion for daily survival, making the natural drive to conserve energy manifest.
Observation
Observation involves systematically watching, recording, and
measuring behaviour as it occurs naturally or in controlled settings, without
manipulating any variables.
Core Purpose: To describe behaviour, identify patterns, and
generate hypotheses.
Key Characteristics:
No Variable Manipulation: The researcher does not introduce
changes or control conditions; they record what naturally happens.
Types:
Naturalistic Observation: Observing subjects in their natural
environment (e.g., studying social interaction on a playground).
Controlled Observation: Observing behaviour in a standardised
setting (e.g., behind a one-way mirror in a laboratory).
Participant Observation: The researcher joins the group being
studied.
Main Advantage: High ecological validity—behaviour is natural
and uncontrived.
Main Limitation: Cannot establish cause-and-effect
relationships (it can show that two variables are related, but not that one
caused the other).
2. Experimentation
An experiment is a structured investigation where the
researcher deliberately manipulates one variable (the Independent Variable)
while keeping all other potential variables constant, to measure its effect on
another variable (the Dependent Variable).
Core Purpose: To isolate cause-and-effect relationships and
test explicit hypotheses.
Key Characteristics:
Control over Variables: Extraneous variables are controlled
through standardisation and random assignment to groups (e.g., experimental vs.
control group).
Active Intervention: The researcher actively changes the
conditions rather than passively observing.
Replicability: Clear, transparent, operationalised procedures
allow other scientists to repeat the study to verify results.
Main Advantage: High internal validity—enables researchers to
determine whether variable A directly causes changes in variable B.
Main Limitation: Can suffer from low ecological validity if
the controlled laboratory environment feels artificial to participants.
Summary Comparison
Feature Observation Experiment
Primary Goal Describe
behaviour and identify natural associations. Establish
cause-and-effect relationships.
Researcher Role Passive
recorder of events as they occur. Active
manipulator of variables and conditions.
Variable Control Low or
none (extraneous influences are unmonitored). High
(uses control groups, random assignment, and standardised procedures).
Key Output Correlational
data, qualitative insights, descriptive statistics. Empirical cause-and-effect conclusions, quantitative comparisons.
Trade-Off High
ecological validity / Low causal certainty. High
causal control / Risk of artificial settings (ecological validity trade-off).
fest as chronic sedentariness.1. Who created it? (Author & Perspective)
Author’s Identity: Who wrote, created, or recorded the source? What was their
position in society, background, or occupation?
Point of View / Bias: What beliefs, values, or prejudices
might have influenced the author? How might their identity shape how they
report events?
Intentionality: Was the creator an eyewitness, or were they recording second-hand information at the time?
2. When and where was it created?
(Historical Context)
Time & Location: What was happening in the broader world
when this source was produced?
Contextual Events: What
social, political, economic, or cultural events directly or indirectly
influenced the creation of the document?
3. Why was it created? (Purpose & Audience) Target
Audience: Who was intended to see, read, or listen to this source (e.g., the
public, a government official, a private friend, future generations)? Primary
Purpose: Was the source created to persuade, inform, record a transaction,
entertain, justify an action, or express personal emotion?
4. What does it tell us? (Content & Evaluation) Main
Ideas: What key claims, arguments, or facts does the source present?
Reliability: How reliable or credible is the information for answering your
specific historical question? Corroboration: How does this source compare with
other primary or secondary sources from the same period? Does it confirm,
contradict, or add new detail to existing evidence? Primary vs. Secondary
Source Quick Comparison
Feature Primary Source Secondary Source Origin Created during
the period being studied by someone directly involved or present. Created after
the event by someone relying on primary sources. Examples: Diaries, letters,
speeches, photographs, official records, raw data. History textbooks,
biographies, documentary films, journal articles.
Value: Offers direct, unmediated evidence of historical
perspectives and events
. Provides synthesis, broader context, and expert analysis of
historical events. Bibliography Entry:
Last name, First name. Title of Work. Publication/Creation
Place: Publisher/Repository, Date.
Burritt, Elihu. Walks in the Black Country and Its Green Borderland.
London: Sampson Low, Son, and Marston, 1868.
APA Style (7th Edition)
Commonly used in social sciences.
In-Text Citation: (Burritt, 1868/2020) — Include original date
and republication date if applicable.
Reference List Entry:
Author, A. A. (Year). Title of primary work. Publisher or
Archive Name. (Original work published Year)
Burritt, E. (1868). Walks in the Black Country and its green borderland.
Sampson Low, Son, and Marston.
